Angolans in the United States: From Forced Migration to Modern Immigration
The presence of Angolans in the United States is a story that spans four centuries, beginning with the tragedy of the Atlantic slave trade and evolving into a modern narrative of refugee resettlement and community building. From the first arrivals in the early 17th century to the establishment of professional networks today, the Angolan diaspora has left an indelible mark on American history.
The Arrival of Angolans in the 17th Century
The first Africans to reach the Thirteen Colonies were likely Angolans. In 1617, a group of 15 men and 17 women were captured by pirates from a Spanish slave ship bound for New Spain and delivered to Jamestown, Virginia. These individuals belonged to the Mbundu and Bakongo ethnic groups, speaking the Kimbundu and Kikongo languages, respectively. Notably, many of these early arrivals were literate.
Simultaneously, Angolans were brought to New Amsterdam (modern-day New York City) by Dutch pirates who had captured them from the Portuguese at the port of São Paulo da Assunção de Loanda (now Luanda). Among these early arrivals was Reytory Angola. Research indicates that, similar to the Virginia arrivals, these individuals were primarily Ambundu and, to a lesser extent, Kongos.
One of the most significant figures of this era was Anthony Johnson, an Angolan former slave who arrived in Virginia in 1621. He became the first documented black slave in the Thirteen Colonies to earn his freedom and subsequently own slaves himself, gaining ownership of John Casor following a civil case in 1654.
The scale of the Angolan trade peaked between 1619 and 1650. By 1644, 6,900 slaves were purchased from African coast stations, primarily in Angola, to perform labor such as clearing forests, building roads and public structures, and farming in the West Indies and other colonies.
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Expansion and Resistance in the 18th and 19th Centuries
During the colonial era, people from the Congo-Angola region constituted 25% of the enslaved population in North America. This group included the Bakongo, the Tio, and the Northern Mbunbu people from the Kingdom of Ndongo. Cultural backgrounds varied; for instance, the Bakongo from the Kingdom of Kongo were often Catholics, having converted voluntarily in 1491 after the establishment of Portuguese trade relations.
Regional distributions varied across the colonies. In South Carolina, while Senegambian slaves were preferred, Angolans were the most numerous, representing roughly one-third of the enslaved population. In Virginia, the majority of enslaved people originated from Angola and modern-day Nigeria, though Angolans specifically made up 17% of arrivals between 1710 and 1769. Other states, including Georgia, Delaware, and Indiana, also saw significant Angolan arrivals.
The Stono Rebellion and the Quest for Freedom
The 18th century saw the arrival of Bakongo slaves who had been captured during civil wars, some of whom were trained soldiers. This military experience contributed to the Stono Rebellion of 1739 in South Carolina, where Angolans possibly made up 40% of the enslaved population. Led by an Angolan named Jemmy and a group of 20 likely Catholic Bakongos, the rebels killed at least 20 white settlers and children before being suppressed near Charlestown. The aftermath was brutal: 40 rebels were decapitated, and their heads were displayed on sticks as a warning. This event led to legislation banning slave importations to address both the inhumanity of the practice and the demographic imbalance of blacks outnumbering whites.
In a later attempt to establish autonomy, approximately 300 former Angolan slaves founded a community called "Angola" in the Braden River delta near present-day Bradenton, Florida. This settlement was destroyed in 1821 by 200 mercenaries hired by slaveholders and hunters. While many were captured, some are believed to have escaped via rafts to Andros Island in The Bahamas.
Modern Angolan Immigration
Large-scale voluntary immigration began in the 1970s as people fled regional wars in Angola. While many initially sought refuge in Portugal, France, and Belgium, restrictions imposed by the European Economic Community in the 1980s redirected many toward the United States.
The growth of the community was gradual: only 1,200 Angolans had emigrated to the US before the 1980s. Between 1980 and 1989, 1,170 arrived, followed by 1,995 between 1990 and 2000. By the year 2000, 4,365 Angolans were registered as living in the United States.
Modern Angolan communities are primarily concentrated in Philadelphia, St. Louis, Phoenix, and Chicago. Some have also settled in Brockton, Massachusetts, drawn by the existing Portuguese-speaking Cape Verdean community. To support these immigrants, the Angolan Community in the USA (ACUSA) was formed in 1992, with the Chicago branch providing essential aid to newcomers.
Key Facts
- First Arrivals: Angolans were likely the first Africans in the Thirteen Colonies, arriving in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1617.
- Ethnic Groups: Primary groups included the Mbundu (speaking Kimbundu) and Bakongo (speaking Kikongo).
- Demographics: People from the Congo-Angola region made up 25% of all enslaved people in colonial North America.
- Stono Rebellion: A 1739 uprising led by an Angolan named Jemmy, which influenced later laws on slave importation.
- Modern Migration: Recent immigration surged in the 1980s due to civil war and European immigration restrictions.
| Period | Nature of Arrival | Key Locations | Notable Events/Groups |
|---|---|---|---|
| 17th Century | Forced (Slave Trade) | Virginia, New York | Mbundu and Bakongo arrivals; Anthony Johnson |
| 18th-19th Century | Forced (Slave Trade) | South Carolina, Georgia, Florida | Stono Rebellion; Angola settlement in Florida |
| 1970s-Present | Voluntary (Refugees) | Philadelphia, Chicago, Phoenix, St. Louis | Formation of ACUSA (1992) |
Frequently Asked Questions
Who were the first Africans to arrive in the Thirteen Colonies?
According to researcher Sheila Walker, the first Africans were Angolans—specifically 15 men and 17 women of Mbundu and Bakongo origin—who arrived in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1617 after being captured from a Spanish ship.
What was the Stono Rebellion?
The Stono Rebellion was a 1739 uprising in South Carolina led by an Angolan named Jemmy. It involved a group of approximately 20 Angolan slaves, many of whom were Catholic Bakongos, and resulted in the deaths of at least 20 white settlers before it was suppressed.
Who was Anthony Johnson?
Anthony Johnson was an Angolan former slave who arrived in Virginia in 1621. He is recognized as the first documented black slave in the Thirteen Colonies to earn his freedom and subsequently own slaves himself.
Why did Angolan immigration increase in the 1980s?
While many Angolans initially fled regional wars to Portugal, France, and Belgium, restrictions on immigration by the European Economic Community in the 1980s forced many to seek refuge in the United States instead.
Where do most modern Angolans live in the United States?
Modern Angolan immigrants have primarily settled in Philadelphia, St. Louis, Phoenix, and Chicago, as well as Brockton, Massachusetts, where there is a strong Portuguese-speaking community.