European Primary Elections: Systems, Trends, and National Variations
In most European nations, the process of selecting political candidates differs significantly from the highly regulated state-run systems seen in North America. In Europe, primaries—elections held to nominate a party's candidate for a general election—are typically organized by the political parties themselves rather than public administrations. Because legislation is often silent on these internal processes, parties have the flexibility to design their own systems, though they may require government cooperation for large-scale open primaries.
Most European countries operate as parliamentary democracies, where the head of government is generally the leader of the party that wins the most seats in Parliament. Consequently, primaries in Europe are frequently used as leadership elections to determine who will lead the party and, potentially, the nation.
Key Facts
- Organization: Primaries are managed by political parties, not the state.
- Types: Closed primaries (limited to party members) are common; open primaries (open to the general public) are rarer.
- Purpose: Primarily used for leadership elections due to the nature of parliamentary systems.
- EU Level: The Lisbon Treaty encourages the designation of European Commission presidential candidates ahead of elections.
- Regional Variation: Practices range from highly democratic open votes in Italy and France to non-binding or controlled processes in Russia and Kazakhstan.
Primary Systems in the European Union
The landscape of EU-wide politics shifted with the Lisbon Treaty (December 2009), which mandates that the election results of the European Parliament be considered when selecting the President of the Commission. As the Commission serves as the EU's executive branch, its president is often viewed as a quasi-prime minister for the Union.
To increase transparency, parties have been encouraged to name their candidates before elections. The European Green Party (EGP) led the way in July 2013 by running the first European-wide open primary, allowing EU citizens over 16 who supported green values to elect transnational candidates. Similarly, the Party of European Socialists (PES) established a working group in 2010 to create a democratic process for designating their 2014 candidate.
Other proposals have suggested expanding this model. Former MEP Tom Spencer once advocated for American-style staggered primaries across EU member states, while the think-tank Notre Europe suggested primaries for the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs.
National Case Studies
France
France has seen a significant evolution in candidate selection. Historically, presidential candidates were not chosen through competitive internal elections. However, the left-wing Socialist Party began utilizing internal elections to manage party divisions, starting with Lionel Jospin in 1995.
A landmark shift occurred in October 2011 when the Socialist Party organized France's first open primary to select a nominee for the 2012 presidential election. This process was open to all registered voters and party members (including minors aged 15-18) for a fee of one euro. Over 3 million people participated, resulting in the nomination of François Hollande.
On the right, the process has been different. In 2007, Nicolas Sarkozy held an approval-style primary without opponents. Later, in 2016, The Republicans held formal primaries to decide their 2017 candidate.
Germany
In Germany, the law requires that party leaders be selected at delegate conferences, meaning any federal-level primary for a leader is non-binding. However, primaries are used for selecting top candidates for federal elections. For example, the Greens used closed primaries for their 2013 and 2017 top candidates.
The SPD first used a non-binding closed primary for leadership in 1993 and again in 2019 to elect Saskia Esken and Norbert Walter-Borjans. The CDU followed suit in 2021, using an online ballot to elect Friedrich Merz.
Italy
Italy has a strong history of open primaries. In 2005, The Union coalition used them to select regional presidents and a Prime Ministerial candidate, with Romano Prodi winning a vote of 4.3 million people. In 2007, the Democratic Party held a successful primary involving 3.5 million voters to elect Walter Veltroni as leader.
Other European Nations
- Hungary: Recently used primaries to unify opposition candidates for the 2019 Budapest mayoral election and the 2022 parliamentary elections. In 2024, the XII district of Budapest utilized instant-runoff voting for its mayoral primary.
- Netherlands: Open primaries are uncommon; candidates are typically chosen by party leadership or registered members. Notable leadership elections include the VVD in 2006 (Mark Rutte), the PvdA in 2016, and the CDA in 2020.
- United Kingdom: The Conservative Party has used open primaries to select specific Member of Parliament (MP) candidates for the 2010 and 2015 general elections.
- Armenia: The Armenian Revolutionary Federation held a non-binding nationwide primary in 2007 to seek public recommendations for a presidential nominee.
Primaries in Eurasia
Kazakhstan
Primaries in Kazakhstan are internal party mechanisms rather than official state processes. The ruling party, Nur Otan, implemented large-scale closed primaries in 2016 for local assembly elections. In 2020, they transitioned to a hybrid format involving online registration and electronic voting, where 662,687 members helped select 78 candidates from a pool of 10,000 applicants.
Russia
Russian primaries have often been non-binding or symbolic. Early efforts occurred in 2000 in St. Petersburg. United Russia has held various primaries, including the "All-People's Primaries" in 2011, though results were frequently ignored by party leadership. In 2016, while United Russia held a massive primary open to all citizens, the leadership still withdrew several winners and appointed candidates who had not participated.
| Region/Country | Primary Type | Key Characteristic | Binding Nature |
|---|---|---|---|
| European Union (EGP) | Open | Transnational candidates | Party-defined |
| France (Socialists 2011) | Open | Mass participation (3M+ voters) | Nomination tool |
| Germany (Federal) | Closed | Member-based for top candidates | Non-binding for leaders |
| Italy (The Union) | Open | High public engagement | Nomination tool |
| Russia (United Russia) | Mixed/Open | Often ignored by leadership | Generally non-binding |
| Kazakhstan (Nur Otan) | Closed | Internal party membership only | Used for final lists |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between an open and closed primary?
A closed primary is restricted to registered members of a specific political party. An open primary allows any eligible voter, regardless of party affiliation, to participate in the selection of a candidate.
Why are European primaries often used for leadership elections?
Because most European countries are parliamentary democracies, the leader of the winning party typically becomes the head of government. Therefore, choosing the party leader is effectively choosing the potential national leader.
How did the Lisbon Treaty affect EU primaries?
The treaty requires that the European Parliament election results be considered when choosing the President of the Commission. This encouraged parties to designate their candidates via primaries before the elections to inform voters.
Are primaries in Russia and Kazakhstan binding?
Generally, no. In Russia, party leadership has frequently ignored primary results or appointed candidates who did not participate. In Kazakhstan, primaries are internal party mechanisms used to form final lists rather than official state-mandated elections.
Who organized the first open primary in France?
The Socialist Party organized the first open primary in October 2011 to select the nominee for the 2012 presidential election, a move inspired by the 2008 U.S. primaries and proposed by the think-tank Terra Nova.