Joan of Arc: Modern Interpretations of Gender and Identity
Few figures from the Middle Ages have commanded as much scholarly attention as Joan of Arc. As noted by Kelly DeVries, she has been viewed through nearly every possible lens: from a saint and a savior of France to a heretic, a religious zealot, a proto-feminist, and even a Marxist liberator. While her role in turning the tide of the Hundred Years War is well-documented, modern discourse has shifted toward the complexities of her identity, specifically her choice of attire and its implications for gender and sexuality.
Key Facts
- Diverse Portrayals: Joan has been interpreted as everything from a demented teenager to a divine seer.
- The Clothing Debate: Her insistence on wearing male clothing is a central point of contention among historians and theorists.
- Scholarly Revisions: Modern efforts by the Centre Jeanne d'Arc aim to correct errors in Jules Quicherat's foundational 19th-century scholarship.
- Identity Theories: Interpretations range from practical necessity (protection from assault) to identity-based claims (transgender or androgyne).
The Debate Over Sexuality and Gender
In the 20th century, writers began to explore Joan's sexuality. In her 1936 work Saint Joan of Arc, novelist Vita Sackville-West suggested that Joan may have been a lesbian, citing her practice of sharing beds with other women. However, this theory was met with rebuttals from historians like Bonnie Wheeler, who pointed out that bed-sharing was a common medieval social practice among women and carried no inherent sexual connotation.
Other scholars view Joan's gender expression through a more spiritual or social lens. Marina Warner suggests that in pre-industrial Europe, there was a link between transvestism (the act of dressing in clothes of the opposite sex) and priestly functions. Warner argues that Joan occupied a "third order"—an androgyne—who transcended the traditional destinies of both men and women without pretending to be either.
Conversely, Régine Pernoud argues that Joan's clothing was a matter of necessity. Citing testimony from the Rehabilitation trial, including that of Guillaume Manchon, Pernoud highlights that Joan feared sexual violation by guards and viewed her male attire as a necessary protection ordained by God.
Revisiting the Historical Record
Much of the modern understanding of Joan is based on the work of Jules Quicherat. However, the Centre Jeanne d'Arc in Orleans, under the Académie française, has found that Quicherat's Procès de Jeanne d'Arc contains selective editing and errors. One significant omission was the treatise by Jacques Gelu, which reveals that even the prelates supporting King Charles VII were uncomfortable with Joan's cross-dressing in 1429.
According to Bouzy, Charles VII only accepted Joan after his confessor, Gérard Machet, linked her to a prophecy by the hermit Marie Robine. This suggests that Joan's gender non-conformity was a point of significant tension even among her allies.
| Perspective | Key Proponent | Primary Argument |
|---|---|---|
| Practical/Protective | Régine Pernoud | Male clothing was used to prevent rape and was ordained by God. |
| Androgynous | Marina Warner | Joan occupied a "third order" beyond male or female gender. |
| Transgender | Leslie Feinberg / Joan Roughgarden | Joan was a male-identified trans person who died for her identity. |
| Sociological/Legal | Susan Crane | Joan used attire to distinguish herself from the category of womanhood. |
Identity, Virginity, and the Stake
The fascination with Joan's body extended to her execution. Steven Weiskopf notes that accounts of her death describe the removal of her clothes to prove to the crowd that she was indeed female. Anne Llewellyn Barstow suggests this reflects a morbid obsession with her sexual identity, as contemporaries struggled to reconcile the image of a powerful war leader with that of a woman.
Susan Crane argues that isolating Joan's clothing from her sexuality is a mistake, suggesting that Joan's persistent effort to distance herself from "womanhood" was a deliberate choice. Unlike traditional religious cross-dressers, Joan maintained her claim to virginity and womanhood while functioning as a fighter. Caroline Walker Bynum adds that Joan's secular cross-dressing "queered" her virginity, moving it beyond traditional canonical meanings.
In more recent years, authors like Leslie Feinberg and biologist Joan Roughgarden have identified Joan as transgender. Feinberg argues that Joan's refusal to renounce her male dress, even under the threat of death, proves that her transvestism was deeply rooted in her identity rather than being a mere tactical choice.
Frequently Asked Questions
Why did Joan of Arc wear men's clothing?
Interpretations vary: some historians argue it was for practical protection against sexual assault, others believe it was a divine mandate, and some modern theorists argue it was an expression of a transgender identity.
Was Joan of Arc considered a lesbian?
While novelist Vita Sackville-West suggested this based on the practice of bed-sharing, many historians reject this, noting that sharing beds was a common, non-sexual social norm for women in the Middle Ages.
How did the Catholic Church view her clothing at the time?
The Church's view was conflicted. While some supporters of Charles VII accepted her due to prophecy, the Inquisition found her transvestism repugnant and demanded she return to women's clothing during her trial.
What is the significance of the "third order" theory?
Proposed by Marina Warner, this theory suggests Joan was an androgyne who transcended the binary of male and female, allowing her to usurp male functions (like military leadership) without fully abandoning her identity as a woman.
Is the historical record of Joan's trial accurate?
Recent research by the Centre Jeanne d'Arc suggests that earlier foundational works, such as those by Jules Quicherat, contained errors and selective editing, leading to a current effort to re-edit the trial records for greater accuracy.