Professor Ranks and Academic Hierarchy in the United States

In the United States, the term professor serves two distinct purposes. As a proper noun, it is an official title bestowed by a college or university upon faculty members who typically hold a PhD or the highest terminal degree in their field (such as an MFA or MLIS). As a common noun, however, it is frequently used as a casual term for anyone teaching at the college level, regardless of their specific rank or academic credentials.

While the vast majority of tenured professors hold doctorates, there are historical and exceptional cases where scholars were granted tenure based on extraordinary achievement without a PhD. Notable examples include Jay Forrester (MIT) with a master's degree, and Saul Kripke (Rockefeller) and Andrew Gleason (Harvard) with only bachelor's degrees. Such exceptions are more common in artistic fields, such as poetry or architectural history, and were more frequent prior to the mid-20th century.

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Key Facts

• Tenure is a permanent job security status available only to specific full-time faculty tracks.
• The standard tenure-track progression is Assistant Professor → Associate Professor → Full Professor.
• The tenure decision usually occurs around the seventh year of an Assistant Professor's appointment.
• Professors of Practice are hired for professional expertise rather than academic research.
• Adjuncts are part-time faculty paid per course and are not salaried employees.
• Professor Emeritus is an honorary title granted to retired professors.

Tenured and Tenure-Track Positions

Tenure-track faculty are full-time educators who engage in a combination of undergraduate and graduate teaching, mentoring, research, and university service. These positions require a PhD or a professional equivalent.

The Hierarchy of Ranks

• Assistant Professor: The entry-level position for those with a PhD (and often a post-doctoral fellowship). This is a probationary period; typically, after seven years, the individual must be granted tenure or leave the university.
• Associate Professor: A mid-level position that is usually tenured.
• Professor (Full Professor): The senior tenured rank, representing the highest standard achievement. This rank is rarely reached before a person's mid-40s.
• Distinguished Professor or Endowed Chair: An honorary senior position, often funded by an endowment from private donors or foundations, which may include a salary increase.

The Tenure and Promotion Process

Promotion from Assistant to Associate Professor is a rigorous process usually occurring 5 to 6 years after appointment. Candidates are evaluated on research, teaching, and administration. While PhD-granting universities prioritize research, liberal arts colleges emphasize teaching.

The approval sequence generally follows this path:

1. External Reviewers: Prominent academics in the field provide confidential reports.
2. Departmental Committee: A committee reviews the CV and external reports to make a recommendation.
3. Departmental Vote: The faculty within the department vote on the candidate.
4. University Panel: An external panel reviews the department's decision.
5. Dean: The administrative head of the college reviews the case.
6. Governing Body: The board of governors or university president provides final approval.

If tenure is denied, the individual typically must leave the institution within two years. Promotion to Full Professor follows a similar review process but is more flexible in timing and does not usually result in job loss if denied.

Non-Tenure-Track Positions

Non-tenure-track faculty often focus primarily on teaching undergraduate courses and may have different job security arrangements than tenured staff.

Specialized Faculty Roles

• Professor of Practice: Appointed based on distinguished non-academic careers (e.g., law, medicine, engineering). They typically require at least 12 years of professional experience and a national reputation.
• Teaching, Clinical, or Collegiate Professors: These roles focus on practical or skills-based instruction. In medical fields, they are called clinical professors; in architecture, studio professors.
• Lecturer or Instructor: Full- or part-time roles focusing on introductory or undergraduate courses. Some institutions use the title Senior Lecturer for highly accomplished individuals in this track.
• Research Professor: These positions focus exclusively on research with no teaching duties. They are often "soft money" positions, meaning the professor must secure their own salary through external grants.

Temporary and Student Positions

Certain roles are designed to be temporary or are part of a student's professional training.

• Adjunct Faculty: Part-time instructors paid per class. They are often professionals working elsewhere or retired academics.
• Visiting Professor: A temporary appointment used to cover a sabbatical leave or a short-term invitation to join a faculty for a limited period (e.g., one academic year).
• Student Instructional Positions: This includes Teaching Assistants (TA), Graduate Teaching Assistants (GTA), and Teaching Fellows (TF). These are not faculty positions; they are training roles for graduate students and do not have voting rights in faculty governance.

Position Type	Primary Focus	Tenure Eligible	Typical Requirement
Tenure-Track	Teaching, Research, Service	Yes	PhD / Terminal Degree
Professor of Practice	Teaching / Professional Application	No	Significant Professional Experience
Research Professor	Research	No	PhD / External Funding
Lecturer / Adjunct	Teaching	No	Master's or PhD
Teaching Assistant	Support / Training	No	Enrolled Graduate Student

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between a Professor and a Lecturer?

A Professor (specifically in the tenure-track sense) is typically expected to balance teaching, research, and university service, and is eligible for permanent tenure. A Lecturer primarily focuses on teaching, often handles undergraduate or introductory courses, and generally does not have tenure or research obligations.

Can someone become a professor without a PhD?

Yes, although it is rare for tenured positions. Some exceptional scholars in fields like mathematics, philosophy, or the arts have been granted tenure with only a bachelor's or master's degree. Additionally, Professors of Practice are hired based on professional expertise rather than academic degrees.

What does "soft money" mean for research professors?

"Soft money" refers to a salary that is not guaranteed by the university's general budget. Instead, the research professor must secure their own funding through external grants and contracts to maintain their position.

Is a Teaching Assistant considered a faculty member?

No. Teaching Assistants (TAs) and other student instructional roles are considered part of the student's training. They do not have faculty privileges, such as voting in faculty elections or serving on official faculty committees.

What is a Professor Emeritus?

Professor Emeritus (male) or Emerita (female) is an honorary title granted to professors who have retired from their university in good standing, allowing them to maintain a formal link to the institution.